States of Matter

States of Matter, in classical physics, three forms in which matter occurs—solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma, the collection of charged gaseous particles containing nearly equal numbers of negative and positive ions, is sometimes called the fourth state of matter (see Ion; Ionization). Solid matter is characterized by resistance to any change in shape, caused by a strong attraction between the molecules of which it is composed. In liquid form, matter does not resist forces that act to change its shape, because the molecules are free to move with respect to each other (see Molecule). Liquids, however, have sufficient molecular attraction to resist forces tending to change their volume. Gaseous matter, in which molecules are widely dispersed and move freely, offers no resistance to change of shape and little resistance to change of volume. As a result, a gas that is not confined tends to diffuse infinitely, increasing in volume and diminishing in density.

Most substances are solid at low temperatures, liquid at medium temperatures, and gaseous at high temperatures, but the states are not always distinct (see Temperature). The temperature at which any given substance changes from solid to liquid is its melting point, and the temperature at which it changes from liquid to gas is its boiling point; (see Freezing Point). The range of melting and boiling points varies widely. Helium remains a gas down to -268.9°C (-452°F), and tungsten remains a solid up to about 3420°C (about 6190°F).

For further discussion of the properties of matter in its different states, see Atom; Crystal; Fluid; Glass; Liquid Crystal; Thermodynamics; Vapor. See also Critical Point; Cryogenics.

Matter

Matter, in science, general term applied to anything that has the property of occupying space and the attributes of gravity and inertia. In classical physics, matter and energy were considered two separate concepts that lay at the root of all physical phenomena. Modern physicists, however, have shown that it is possible to transform matter into energy and energy into matter and have thus broken down the classical distinction between the two concepts (see Mass; Relativity). When dealing with a large number of phenomena, however, such as motion, the behavior of liquids and gases, and heat, scientists find it simpler and more convenient to continue treating matter and energy as separate entities.

Certain elementary particles of matter combine to form atoms; in turn, atoms combine to form molecules. The properties of individual molecules and their distribution and arrangement give to matter in all its forms various qualities such as mass, hardness, viscosity, fluidity, color, taste, electrical resistivity, and heat conductivity, among others. See Antimatter; Chemistry; Electricity; Heat; States of Matter.

In philosophy, matter has been generally regarded as the raw material of the physical world, although certain philosophers of the school of idealism, such as the Irish philosopher George Berkeley, denied that matter exists independent of the mind. See Greek Philosophy; Kant, Immanuel. Most modern philosophers accept the scientific definition of matter.